Difference between classical and operant conditioning

Classical conditioning is the process by which individuals learn to link the information value from a neutral stimulus to a stimulus that would not naturally cause a response. It involves reflexive behavior, which is not under an individual's conscious control. 

 

Classical conditioning includes the development of associations between someone's thoughts or feelings and particular environmental stimulus situations. However, since desired employee behaviors typically do not include reflexive responses that can be changed by using classical conditioning techniques, classical conditioning is usually not considered very applicable in the work setting. 

 

Operant conditioning, on the other hand, refers to a process by which individuals learn voluntary behavior. In this case, it is the consequences of the behavior that influence the learning process. Many employees' work behaviors are operant behaviors. 

 

Thus, operant conditioning is of considerable value to managers, since they can influence the results of employees' operant behaviors, and thereby manage employee performance.

No-1 Digital Camera in my review

Compact products comprise two missions to accomplish: Way and function. These campaign are compact sufficient to fit into a take or small purse, yet powerful sufficient to take extreme quality photos. These compact digital cameras are moderately priced and by far the nearly all accepted image capturing campaign on the bazaar.

Design
A compact digital camera wouldn't be considered silky and slim if it was the size and significance of a brick. These products are accepted as they are compact; therefore, the lighter and more powerful the device, the better it is.

Image Quality
There are numerous skin found on image capturing campaign with the purpose of enhance its image quality. Some of these include digital zoom and a extreme focus range. The determination is individual part with the purpose of is analytical on behalf of the image quality of the device. The determination in these campaign is measured in megapixels. The more megapixels these products comprise, the clearer the urbanized photographs. Another hefty piece found on these campaign to enhance image quality is the optical zoom. The optical zoom plant the same as zoom on a standard 35mm camera. The advanced the optical zoom the farther away from the object you can be and still dig up a obvious picture. Don't dig up this puzzled with digital zoom.

Features
Certain skin can be the deciding part of whether or not you leverage the camera. All of the digital cameras we reviewed had the nearly all critical skin: An image stabilizer, red eye reduction, uninterrupted shooting options, a self timer and not the same color possessions. Many cameras comprise more well along skin with the purpose of permit you edit and organize your photos on your camera. Some our favorite skin include challenge recognition, pet detection, cool maze uploading and GPS Geotagging.

Battery Life/Memory
We all hate changing batteries in electronic campaign. So, needless to say, these compact products with longer battery life are better, and will save money in the long run. Also, built-in recollection is rarely ideas of as critical until the date you need it. Built-in recollection is your campaign back up design if your recollection certificate or stick is chock-a-block, lost or damaged.

If you feel like high-quality photos of individuals proceedings with the purpose of are hefty to you, a combination of these skin will provide the finest experience using a compact digital camera.

1. Olympus Stylus XZ-2
2. Canon Powershot G15
3. Nikon Coolpix P330
4. Fujifilm X100s
5. Sony Cyber-shot RX100 II
6. Fujifilm X20
7. Ricoh GR
8. Nikon Coolpix P7700
9. Canon Powershot S100
10. Panasonic Lumix LX7

What is Performance Audit?

A performance audit is an objective and systematic examination of evidence for the purpose of providing an independent assessment of the performance of a government organization, program, activity, or function in order to provide information to improve public accountability and facilitate decision-making by parties with responsibility to oversee or initiate corrective action 

Performance audits include economy and efficiency and program audits:

a. Economy and efficiency audits include determining :
   (1) whether the entity is acquiring, protecting, and using its resources (such as personnel, property, and space) economically and efficiently,
   (2) the causes of inefficiencies or uneconomical practices, and
   (3) whether the entity has complied with laws and regulations on matters of economy and efficiency.

b. Program audits include determining:
   (1) the extent to which the desired results or benefits established by the legislature or other authorizing body are being achieved,
   (2) the effectiveness of organizations, programs, activities, or functions, and
   (3) whether the entity has complied with significant laws and regulations applicable to the program.

Factors to consider in Economy and efficiency audits

Economy and efficiency audits may, for example, consider whether the entity 

a. is following sound procurement practices;
b. is acquiring the appropriate type, quality, and amount of resources at an appropriate cost;
c. is properly protecting and maintaining its resources;
d. is avoiding duplication of effort by employees and work that serves little or no purpose;
e. is avoiding idleness and over staffing;
f. is using efficient operating procedures;
g. is using the optimum amount of resources (staff, equipment, and facilities) in producing or delivering the appropriate quantity and quality of goods or services in a timely manner;
h. is complying with requirements of laws and regulations that could significantly affect the acquisition, protection, and use of the entity's resources;
i. has an adequate management control system for measuring, reporting, and monitoring a program's economy and efficiency; and

j. has reported measures of economy and efficiency that are valid and reliable.

Factors to consider in Program audits

Program audits may, for example
a. assess whether the objectives of a new, or ongoing program are proper, suitable, or relevant;
b. determine the extent to which a program achieves a desired level of program results;
c. assess the effectiveness of the program and/or of individual program components;
d. identify factors inhibiting satisfactory performance;
e. determine whether management has considered alternatives for carrying out the program that might yield desired results more effectively or at a lower cost;
f. determine whether the program complements, duplicates, overlaps, or conflicts with other related programs;
g. identify ways of making programs work better;
h. assess compliance with laws and regulations applicable to the program;
i. assess the adequacy of the management control system for measuring, reporting, and monitoring program's effectiveness; and
j. determine whether management has reported measures of program effectiveness that are valid and reliable.

Objectives of performance auditing

Objectives of performance auditing - The objectives are evaluation of economy, efficiency, and effectiveness of policy, programmes, organization and management. Policy is usually defined as an effort to achieve certain aims with certain resources and perhaps within a certain time. A programme can be described as a set of interrelated means-legal, financial, etc. to implement a given policy. Organisation can be defined in different ways, but mostly it is taken to mean the aggregate of people, structures and processes that have the aim of achieving particular objectives.

In an organized set up or entity, the entity’s goal and objectives are governed by its constitution. As well known to us, the Memorandum and Articles of Association of a company forms the constitution of the company as also the basic document for entering into a contract with that entity. Authority is delegated to the management. Management generally refers to a person or group person(s), like Board of Directors in a company, vested with powers to take all decisions, actions and framing rules for the steering, accounting and development of human, financial and material resources. Management decisions are mainly internal to the operations of an organization. 

Policies and programmes decided by the legislature, the executive or executive official, relating to a specific organization (and its internal activities and performance) are the broad guidelines or parameters within which the management is supposed to function. The management is accountable in so far as public sector enterprises are concerned to the legislature and the executives in the Govt. The basic principle of public finance, which not only applies to Govt. expenditure but also forms part of prudential norms of finance in any organization, is that the delegated authority shall observe that care and due diligence in sanctioning of any expenditure as an ordinary man of average prudence of his caliber would have had. Management’s action is watched by other statutory authorities like CAG, CVC, etc. as to utilization of the money sanctioned for the purpose of sanction and also within the sanction especially from the angle of reasonability and the benefits flowing from such expenditure. Efficiency is the input-output ratio and in the case of public spending efficiency is achieved when the output is maximized at the minimum of expenditure. These two aspects mainly relates to economy and efficiency while efficacy is measured by the benefits can point out the consequences of a given policy.

The auditors, who undertake performance audit of a program or unit, must posses knowledge of the industries or labor contracts where these provisions are applicable and also identify the population thereof before carrying out audit program. The auditor shall evaluate, as part of performance audit, the standard of living before implementation and after implementation of the Act. Further he shall have to evaluate the evidence available before him as to nature of returns prescribed and obtained for taking appropriate action. Auditor shall also have to evaluate the economy, efficiency and effectiveness in the welfare systems to be audited. The performance auditor can then study the shortcomings in the coordination between different agencies like labor department, EPF and ESI organization and the control systems and point out a set of relevant problems. Auditor shall also point out lacuna, if any in the existing legal frame work or enforcement mechanism to strengthen the objective of leglislation. Another possible area of critical audit may be to study actual level of compensation required in each area keeping in mind the local living conditions and where the minimum wages prescribed in the statute is demonstrably different from this level he may report the same to the Govt. for taking appropriate action. In this manner, the performance audit can not only examine the reasons for such vagaries but also ensures that the legislation serves the intended purpose. By reporting the same to the legislature, the corrective is made possible.