Five defense mechanisms that have been identified for the rationalization of workplace aggression.

Hostile attribution bias has an implicit assumption that people tend to be motivated by desires to harm others is hostile attribution bias. Individuals with this bias may see even friendly acts by others as being driven by hidden/hostile agendas that are designed to inflict harm. 

 

Potency bias has an implicit assumption by the aggressive individual that interactions with others are contests to establish dominance versus submissiveness. Individuals with this bias believe that not acting aggressively is seen as weakness, fear, and cowardice. 

 

Retribution bias states aggressive individuals think that taking revenge is more important than preserving relationships. 

 

Derogation of target bias states aggressive individuals see those they wish to make (or have made) targets of aggressions as evil, immoral, or untrustworthy. 

 

Social discounting bias states aggressive individuals believe that social customs reflect free will and the opportunity to satisfy their own needs.

The main components of transactional leadership

Through contingent rewards, transactional leaders identify paths that link the achievement of goals to rewards, clarify expectations, exchange promises and resources for support, arrange mutually satisfactory agreements, negotiate for resources, exchange assistance for effort, and provide commendation for successful performance. 

Through active management by exception, transactional leaders actively monitor the work performed by subordinates, use corrective methods if deviations from expected standards occur, and enforce rules to prevent mistakes. Through passive management by exception, transactional leaders intervene after unacceptable performance or deviations from accepted standards occur.


Authentic leadership involves influencing followers' attitudes and behaviors through the core interrelated processes of identification, hope, trust, positive emotions, and optimism. These leaders know and understand themselves; they know what they believe and value, and act on their values and beliefs through open and honest communications with subordinates and others. They are highly ethical leaders.

Fundamentals of the transactional leadership model.

The transactional leadership model calls for leaders to influence followers primarily through contingent reward-based exchanges. Leaders attempt to identify clear goals for followers, the specific paths for achieving the goals, and the rewards that will be forthcoming for achieving them. 

 

A follower’s performance is monitored and corrective actions are taken if there are deviations from the expected path. The emphasis is on exchanging units of work for units of rewards.



LMX model for employee/employer relationships:


Leader-member exchange or LMX suggests that leaders develop different relationships with each of their subordinates through a series of work related transactions. These relationships range from low quality, were it can be completely transactional, or conversely high quality, where the relationship is based on loyalty, obligation and respect. 

 

 The three phases of LMX relationships are 

1. stranger, 
2. acquaintance and  
3. mature partnership.

5 fundamental principles in Auditing globally followed

There are five fundamental principles in the Auditing Code of Ethics and Conduct. These are set out below:

1. Integrity. Professional Members must be straightforward and honest in all professional and business relationships. Integrity implies not just honesty but also fair dealing and truthfulness.

2. Objectivity. Professional Members must not allow bias, conflicts of interest or undue influence of others to override their professional or business judgements.

3. Professional competence and due care. Members have a duty to maintain their professional knowledge and skill at such a level that a client or employer receives a competent service, based on current developments in practice,legislation and techniques. Members must act diligently and in accordance with applicable technical and professional standards.

4. Confidentiality. Professional Members must respect the confidentiality of information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships and must not disclose such information to third parties without authority or unless there is a legal or professional right or duty to disclose. Confidential information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships must not be used for the personal advantage of members or third parties.

5. Professional behavior. Professional Members must comply with relevant laws and regulations and must avoid any action which discredits the profession. They must behave with courtesy and consideration towards all with whom they come into contact in a professional capacity.